In 1950 751 million people lived in urban areas, by 2018 4.2 billion people did, and by 2050 a jarring 68% of the world population is projected to live in urban areas. (United Nations, 2018)
The rapid sprawling city is a salient topic of discussion in both developing and developed countries. Numerous studies have explored the topic of urban sprawl and its emergence with urbanization, breaking down approaches to its measurements and possible ways to reduce this issue, yet the approaches often fall short. While at times it seems improbable, urban sprawl can be stopped – it isn’t inevitable. It is often the result of poor planning and short-sightedness. (David Suzuki Foundation, 2020), understanding the key patterns and trends of this urbanization to build more probable predictions is vital, and so is the necessary control of the present sprawling occurring all over the world. Thus, the best way to tackle urban sprawl is through centralized policies that prioritize better sustainable urban planning.
The rapid sprawling city is a salient topic of discussion in both developing and developed countries. Numerous studies have explored the topic of urban sprawl and its emergence with urbanization, breaking down approaches to its measurements and possible ways to reduce this issue, yet the approaches often fall short. While at times it seems improbable, urban sprawl can be stopped – it isn’t inevitable. It is often the result of poor planning and short-sightedness. (David Suzuki Foundation, 2020), understanding the key patterns and trends of this urbanization to build more probable predictions is vital, and so is the necessary control of the present sprawling occurring all over the world. Thus, the best way to tackle urban sprawl is through centralized policies that prioritize better sustainable urban planning.
The dawn of urbanization
The common view of rural areas as exclusively impoverished and lacking resources is somewhat mythical; a rural area is a low-density region where the majority of the residing population engages in agricultural professions. They are often on the outskirts of the densely populated urban areas, and have fewer human structures such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, etc. On the contrary, an urban area is an area or region of high settlement (population) density in which much of its population are employed in non-agricultural professions. (National Geographic Society, Rural area 2012; National Geographic Society, Urban area 2012)
This distinction between rural and urban came to be circa the industrial revolution; where the rapid emergence of new technological advancement resulted in an economic shift outward of agriculture, this economic growth commenced the formation of factories which in part resulted in a high demand for labor. (The Investopedia Team, 2021) People began to relocate to cities because of this economic expansion and the increased job opportunities – this relocation was similarly prompted by the changing methods of farming in rural areas (a byproduct of the Industrial revolution) which focused on capital incentive (machinery) and thus reduced the need for human labor (Yuko, 2021); this mass population shift from rural to urban settings, and the consequent changes to these urban settings, is known as urbanization. (Kuddus et al., 2020)
The common view of rural areas as exclusively impoverished and lacking resources is somewhat mythical; a rural area is a low-density region where the majority of the residing population engages in agricultural professions. They are often on the outskirts of the densely populated urban areas, and have fewer human structures such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, etc. On the contrary, an urban area is an area or region of high settlement (population) density in which much of its population are employed in non-agricultural professions. (National Geographic Society, Rural area 2012; National Geographic Society, Urban area 2012)
This distinction between rural and urban came to be circa the industrial revolution; where the rapid emergence of new technological advancement resulted in an economic shift outward of agriculture, this economic growth commenced the formation of factories which in part resulted in a high demand for labor. (The Investopedia Team, 2021) People began to relocate to cities because of this economic expansion and the increased job opportunities – this relocation was similarly prompted by the changing methods of farming in rural areas (a byproduct of the Industrial revolution) which focused on capital incentive (machinery) and thus reduced the need for human labor (Yuko, 2021); this mass population shift from rural to urban settings, and the consequent changes to these urban settings, is known as urbanization. (Kuddus et al., 2020)
Urbanization has reached a new extreme by the name Urban Sprawl
Overtime, what was once a niche becomes the massive majority, the industrialism that first drew in the workers and their families into cities, can not stop bringing in more, and ultimately this constant urbanization results in a rapid urban growth. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021) Urban sprawl refers to a spread of an urban area into ex-rural land, though other sources define it as “a spatial form of disorderly over-expansion” driven by the rapid urbanization, (Jiating, 2021), and others approach urban sprawl through proposed methodology to measure it instead. (Ismael, 2020; Satterthwaite et al., 2010). The exact definition of urban sprawl is yet to be agreed upon, but the basic concept of rapid expansion remains overt throughout. This tendency to expand city boundaries when the inner city is too crowded can be dated back to beginning of the Christian era with Rome, (Ismael, 2020), thus while the term gains its saliency with the industrial revolution, it by no means began with it.
The discussion of urban sprawl is relatively bilateral; while one side views urban sprawl in a problematic limelight, the other side believes urban sprawl to be beneficial; they perceive urban sprawl and urbanization as a modern way of life that manifests local economic growth. (Tegegne, 2002) Dr. Robert Bruegmann – an architecture and urban development critic and historian – claims that these sprawling cities provide social and economic opportunities that vastly outweigh the problems they may cause. He similarly claims that attempting to fix the prominent rapid urbanization is but “strident”, it risks destroying the very nature of their economic growth, and that eventually – if allowed to grow more capital – the “glaring” issues of urban sprawl would simply be alleviated. (Bruegmann, 2014) Dr. Bruegmann speaks like an economist, does he not?
Whether the economic boost outweighs the negative consequences of urban sprawl is unlikely, as these consequences are both adamant and threatening to the livelihood of the residents, they include water and air pollution, increased traffic fatalities, loss of agricultural capacity, increased automobile dependency, effects on human health, loss of natural habitat, unfunded infrastructure, etc. (Everything Connects, 2013) If the latter group is correct on their disapproval of urban sprawl, initiatives should have been taken to address the issues proposed, right? Well not exactly. Initiatives that can address issues with land use – such as that of urban sprawl – are rather difficult to present neatly, due to the multiple dimensions and factors that constitute sprawl (Jiating, 2021; Ismael, 2020) and the dynamic character of the issue – information can easily become unreliable as urban patterns are continually changing. (Terando et al., 2014) The projection of urban sprawl relies on the experience and conditions of the past which may not continue to prevail in coming decades.
Overtime, what was once a niche becomes the massive majority, the industrialism that first drew in the workers and their families into cities, can not stop bringing in more, and ultimately this constant urbanization results in a rapid urban growth. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021) Urban sprawl refers to a spread of an urban area into ex-rural land, though other sources define it as “a spatial form of disorderly over-expansion” driven by the rapid urbanization, (Jiating, 2021), and others approach urban sprawl through proposed methodology to measure it instead. (Ismael, 2020; Satterthwaite et al., 2010). The exact definition of urban sprawl is yet to be agreed upon, but the basic concept of rapid expansion remains overt throughout. This tendency to expand city boundaries when the inner city is too crowded can be dated back to beginning of the Christian era with Rome, (Ismael, 2020), thus while the term gains its saliency with the industrial revolution, it by no means began with it.
The discussion of urban sprawl is relatively bilateral; while one side views urban sprawl in a problematic limelight, the other side believes urban sprawl to be beneficial; they perceive urban sprawl and urbanization as a modern way of life that manifests local economic growth. (Tegegne, 2002) Dr. Robert Bruegmann – an architecture and urban development critic and historian – claims that these sprawling cities provide social and economic opportunities that vastly outweigh the problems they may cause. He similarly claims that attempting to fix the prominent rapid urbanization is but “strident”, it risks destroying the very nature of their economic growth, and that eventually – if allowed to grow more capital – the “glaring” issues of urban sprawl would simply be alleviated. (Bruegmann, 2014) Dr. Bruegmann speaks like an economist, does he not?
Whether the economic boost outweighs the negative consequences of urban sprawl is unlikely, as these consequences are both adamant and threatening to the livelihood of the residents, they include water and air pollution, increased traffic fatalities, loss of agricultural capacity, increased automobile dependency, effects on human health, loss of natural habitat, unfunded infrastructure, etc. (Everything Connects, 2013) If the latter group is correct on their disapproval of urban sprawl, initiatives should have been taken to address the issues proposed, right? Well not exactly. Initiatives that can address issues with land use – such as that of urban sprawl – are rather difficult to present neatly, due to the multiple dimensions and factors that constitute sprawl (Jiating, 2021; Ismael, 2020) and the dynamic character of the issue – information can easily become unreliable as urban patterns are continually changing. (Terando et al., 2014) The projection of urban sprawl relies on the experience and conditions of the past which may not continue to prevail in coming decades.
Centralization or Decentralization
Per the undermined impact of governmental regulation and political institutions in (inadvertently) enabling urban sprawl (Jiating, 2021; Liu et al., 2021), they should play a similarly prevalent role in the intervention of this issue. This can be done through the endorsement of policies to combat the different aspects of the issue. With that arises a new question of the type of regulations pushed forward – the age-old question of fragmentation or centralization.
Fragmentation (also known as decentralization) is when urban governance is delegated to more local levels of government, (Foldvary, 2001) depicted as more sensible as it allows for smaller regional divisions – in a sense, controlling sprawl by focusing on each smaller district is more effective than tackling the issue at a wider range by an individual centralized government. People living in the smaller district identify by it, this shared identity improves the attachment formed to the place. (Scannel & Gifford, 2014) Moreover, it is viewed considered beneficial to both economic growth and public good provision, (Wu et al., 2018) as the governments are closer to their constituents allowing both parties mutual great accessibility.
However, these benefits are more short term (some local authorities may not have the incentive to hear out their constituents (Lin & Liu, 2000)) and relatively selective; it tends to negatively effect economic growth in developing countries while positively affecting economic growth in developed countries (Davoodi & Zou, 1998). In the long run the demerits of decentralization will outweigh its merits. As Martinez-Vazquez and McNab stated: “Unfettered fiscal decentralization is likely to lead to a concentration of resources in a few geographical locations and thus increase fiscal disparities across sub-national governments.” (Martinez-Vazquez & McNab, 2003) While aiming for regional equality to combat uncontrolled sprawl further imbalance occurs. A senior government of sort that overlooks the entire region and has the power to allocate resources equitably may be more appropriate.
Centralization ( also known as consolidation) is a system in which urban governing is concentrated within a central, singular governmental body, and that group gives instructions and regulations for the regional groups. (Collins, 2021; Joulfaian & Marlow, 1991) The hierarchical, bureaucratic system causes a communication barrier that distorts the flow of information from below to above and vice versa, causing it to be deemed unfavorable (Wu et al., 2018). Though a hierarchy can be exploitative it provides a certain consistency and rationality that can result in a better quality of public services.
The larger unitary region can better exploit economies of scale – lower unit cost of output and resources because of the increased production of the larger organization – and thus have better accessibility to cheaper resources. (Brutzkus, 1975) Likewise, settlers of centralized regions tend to have better homogeneity as the inclusion of everyone – even rural areas- culminates equality amid regions. This equality incites mutual partnership desired by Colin Russo as the ideal of urbanization. (Russo, 2017) Alongside a mutuality matching with that urged by the Anahita Foundation – a non-governmental organization focusing on the empowerment of rural India. (Anahita Foundation, 2021) It can be argued that fragmentation can lead to a similar mutual understanding as the regions are relatively independent and there is less ground for conflict (on taxation distribution for example).
Policies proposed to combat problems caused by urban sprawl
China has launched a series of centralized land policy reforms to improve land-use efficiency, to rationalize land allocation. The policies include the adoption of “land-use rights, land taxation and use fees, farmland protection, land administration, and regulations on land markets” (Ding, 2003). These policies contributed to the governmental revenue for financing infrastructure – aiding in solving the issue of poor infrastructure resulting from sprawl and possibly leading to more. The policies gave an unfair advantage to certain socioeconomic classes, which in part resulted in conflict on matter of equity. (Ding, 2003). The policies failed in recognizing the possible division and inequality that may surface from the regulations put forth.
We have long evolved into this urban ideal that it is too late to start over. Thus, with the resources we are provided, is it not better to control and regulate into a better future? For the issue is urgent and strong governance is necessary. Fragmentation has its merits but in the context of a widespread issue, as that of urban sprawl, a concentrated singular government would have the better scope of vision to allocate the necessary regulations.
The complexity of urban sprawl is fascinating, it feels almost apocalyptic in its rapidness and spreading, yet it goes unnoticed until you suddenly must travel 2-3 hours to work, and the city doubles or triples in size. But by then the damage has already been done, resurrecting the old natural land from the remains of an uninhabited city is far more of a dilemma than predicting sprawl and setting precautious measurers to reduce and possibly remove the issue.
Per the undermined impact of governmental regulation and political institutions in (inadvertently) enabling urban sprawl (Jiating, 2021; Liu et al., 2021), they should play a similarly prevalent role in the intervention of this issue. This can be done through the endorsement of policies to combat the different aspects of the issue. With that arises a new question of the type of regulations pushed forward – the age-old question of fragmentation or centralization.
Fragmentation (also known as decentralization) is when urban governance is delegated to more local levels of government, (Foldvary, 2001) depicted as more sensible as it allows for smaller regional divisions – in a sense, controlling sprawl by focusing on each smaller district is more effective than tackling the issue at a wider range by an individual centralized government. People living in the smaller district identify by it, this shared identity improves the attachment formed to the place. (Scannel & Gifford, 2014) Moreover, it is viewed considered beneficial to both economic growth and public good provision, (Wu et al., 2018) as the governments are closer to their constituents allowing both parties mutual great accessibility.
However, these benefits are more short term (some local authorities may not have the incentive to hear out their constituents (Lin & Liu, 2000)) and relatively selective; it tends to negatively effect economic growth in developing countries while positively affecting economic growth in developed countries (Davoodi & Zou, 1998). In the long run the demerits of decentralization will outweigh its merits. As Martinez-Vazquez and McNab stated: “Unfettered fiscal decentralization is likely to lead to a concentration of resources in a few geographical locations and thus increase fiscal disparities across sub-national governments.” (Martinez-Vazquez & McNab, 2003) While aiming for regional equality to combat uncontrolled sprawl further imbalance occurs. A senior government of sort that overlooks the entire region and has the power to allocate resources equitably may be more appropriate.
Centralization ( also known as consolidation) is a system in which urban governing is concentrated within a central, singular governmental body, and that group gives instructions and regulations for the regional groups. (Collins, 2021; Joulfaian & Marlow, 1991) The hierarchical, bureaucratic system causes a communication barrier that distorts the flow of information from below to above and vice versa, causing it to be deemed unfavorable (Wu et al., 2018). Though a hierarchy can be exploitative it provides a certain consistency and rationality that can result in a better quality of public services.
The larger unitary region can better exploit economies of scale – lower unit cost of output and resources because of the increased production of the larger organization – and thus have better accessibility to cheaper resources. (Brutzkus, 1975) Likewise, settlers of centralized regions tend to have better homogeneity as the inclusion of everyone – even rural areas- culminates equality amid regions. This equality incites mutual partnership desired by Colin Russo as the ideal of urbanization. (Russo, 2017) Alongside a mutuality matching with that urged by the Anahita Foundation – a non-governmental organization focusing on the empowerment of rural India. (Anahita Foundation, 2021) It can be argued that fragmentation can lead to a similar mutual understanding as the regions are relatively independent and there is less ground for conflict (on taxation distribution for example).
Policies proposed to combat problems caused by urban sprawl
China has launched a series of centralized land policy reforms to improve land-use efficiency, to rationalize land allocation. The policies include the adoption of “land-use rights, land taxation and use fees, farmland protection, land administration, and regulations on land markets” (Ding, 2003). These policies contributed to the governmental revenue for financing infrastructure – aiding in solving the issue of poor infrastructure resulting from sprawl and possibly leading to more. The policies gave an unfair advantage to certain socioeconomic classes, which in part resulted in conflict on matter of equity. (Ding, 2003). The policies failed in recognizing the possible division and inequality that may surface from the regulations put forth.
We have long evolved into this urban ideal that it is too late to start over. Thus, with the resources we are provided, is it not better to control and regulate into a better future? For the issue is urgent and strong governance is necessary. Fragmentation has its merits but in the context of a widespread issue, as that of urban sprawl, a concentrated singular government would have the better scope of vision to allocate the necessary regulations.
The complexity of urban sprawl is fascinating, it feels almost apocalyptic in its rapidness and spreading, yet it goes unnoticed until you suddenly must travel 2-3 hours to work, and the city doubles or triples in size. But by then the damage has already been done, resurrecting the old natural land from the remains of an uninhabited city is far more of a dilemma than predicting sprawl and setting precautious measurers to reduce and possibly remove the issue.
References
Anahita Foundation. (2021). Anahita Foundation - Site. https://www.anahita.org.in/.
Bruegmann, R. (2014, May 8). Sprawl is good for you. POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/05/sprawl-is-good-for-you-106494/.
Brutzkus, E. (1975). Centralized versus Decentralized Pattern of Urbanization in Developing Countries: An Attempt to Elucidate a Guideline Principle. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 23(4), 633–652. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1153189
Collins. (2021). Centralize definition and meaning: Collins english dictionary. Centralize definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/centralize.
David Suzuki Foundation. (2020, September 21). Discourage urban sprawl. David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can-do/discourage-urban-sprawl/.
Davoodi, H., & Zou, H.-fu. (1998). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth: A cross-country study. Journal of Urban Economics, 43(2), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.1997.2042
Ding, C. (2003). Land policy reform in China: Assessment and prospects. Land Use Policy, 20(2), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-8377(02)00073-x
Everything Connects. (2013, November 20). Urban sprawl. Everything Connects. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.everythingconnects.org/urban-sprawl.html.
Foldvary, F. E. (2001). The Completely Decentralized City: The Case for Benefits Based Public Finance. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 60(1), 403–418. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3487957
Ismael, H. (2020). Urban form study: the sprawling city—review of methods of studying urban sprawl. Geojournal, 86(4), 1785-1796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10157-9
Jiating, W., Yu, X., Hongfu, M., & Siyuan, C. (2021). Research on the measurement of urban sprawl with a multi-factor indicator in the context of rapid urbanization in China. China City Planning Review, 30(3), 62-72.
Joulfaian, D., & Marlow, M. L. (1991). Centralization and government competition. Applied Economics, 23(10), 1603–1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036849100000125
Kuddus, M. A., Tynan, E., & McBryde, E. (2020, January 2). Urbanization: A problem for the rich and the poor? Public Health Reviews. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://publichealthreviews.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0.
Lin, J. Y., & Liu, Z. (2000). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth in China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 49(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1086/452488
Liu, Y., Nath, N., Murayama, A., & Manabe, R. (2021). Transit-oriented development with urban sprawl? Four phases of urban growth and policy intervention in Tokyo. Land Use Policy, 112, 105854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105854
Martinez-Vazquez, J., & McNab, R. M. (2003). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth. World development, 31(9), 1597-1616. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X03001098?casa_token=PX5fJvi6tm8AAAAA:_ZmPnNqFet-sgqavUsfV2SiDOsSiz3WxaRgy4QyMTsVG5DzEYTC5C1vyP7GwZTsyefjkmM48Rg
National Geographic Society. (2012, October 9). Rural area. National Geographic Society. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rural-area/.
National Geographic Society. (2012, October 9). Urban area. National Geographic Society. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/urban-area/#:~:text=An%20urban%20area%20is%20the%20region%20surrounding%20a%20city.,towns%2C%20cities%2C%20and%20suburbs.
Russo, C. (2017, September 11). In the wake of Urbanisation. Future Proof. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.futuresplatform.com/blog/wake-urbanisation.
Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan, G., & Tacoli, C. (2010). Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554), 2809–2820. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0136
Scannel, L., & Gifford, R. (2014). The psychology of place attachment. In R. Gifford, & R. Gifford (Ed.), Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice (5th ed., pp. 272 - 300). Colville, Wash, Washington, United States of America: Optimal Books. Retrieved September 30, 1998.
Tegegne G/Egizabher. (2002). Urban policy and strategy in Ethiopia proceeding of the second annual conference, Addis Ababa, association of Ethiopian geographer.
Terando, A. J., Costanza, J., Belyea, C., Dunn, R. R., McKerrow, A., & Collazo, J. A. (2014). The southern megalopolis: Using the past to predict the future of urban sprawl in the southeast U.S. PLoS ONE, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102261
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2021, July 27). Impact of the Industrial Revolution. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/urbanization/Impact-of-the-Industrial-Revolution.
The Investopedia Team. (2021, December 1). How does industrialization lead to urbanization? Investopedia. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/041515/how-does-industrialization-lead-urbanization.asp.
United Nations . (2018, May 16). 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says un | UN Desa Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.
Williamson, J. G. (1965). Regional inequality and the process of National Development: A Description of the patterns. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 13(4, Part 2), 1–84. https://doi.org/10.1086/450136
Wu, A. M., Ye, L., & Li, H. (2018). The impact of fiscal decentralization on urban agglomeration: Evidence from China. Journal of Urban Affairs, 41(2), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2018.1484254
Yuko, E. (2021, November 18). How the industrial revolution fueled the growth of cities. History.com. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.history.com/news/industrial-revolution-cities.
Bruegmann, R. (2014, May 8). Sprawl is good for you. POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/05/sprawl-is-good-for-you-106494/.
Brutzkus, E. (1975). Centralized versus Decentralized Pattern of Urbanization in Developing Countries: An Attempt to Elucidate a Guideline Principle. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 23(4), 633–652. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1153189
Collins. (2021). Centralize definition and meaning: Collins english dictionary. Centralize definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/centralize.
David Suzuki Foundation. (2020, September 21). Discourage urban sprawl. David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can-do/discourage-urban-sprawl/.
Davoodi, H., & Zou, H.-fu. (1998). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth: A cross-country study. Journal of Urban Economics, 43(2), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.1997.2042
Ding, C. (2003). Land policy reform in China: Assessment and prospects. Land Use Policy, 20(2), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-8377(02)00073-x
Everything Connects. (2013, November 20). Urban sprawl. Everything Connects. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.everythingconnects.org/urban-sprawl.html.
Foldvary, F. E. (2001). The Completely Decentralized City: The Case for Benefits Based Public Finance. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 60(1), 403–418. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3487957
Ismael, H. (2020). Urban form study: the sprawling city—review of methods of studying urban sprawl. Geojournal, 86(4), 1785-1796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10157-9
Jiating, W., Yu, X., Hongfu, M., & Siyuan, C. (2021). Research on the measurement of urban sprawl with a multi-factor indicator in the context of rapid urbanization in China. China City Planning Review, 30(3), 62-72.
Joulfaian, D., & Marlow, M. L. (1991). Centralization and government competition. Applied Economics, 23(10), 1603–1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036849100000125
Kuddus, M. A., Tynan, E., & McBryde, E. (2020, January 2). Urbanization: A problem for the rich and the poor? Public Health Reviews. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://publichealthreviews.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0.
Lin, J. Y., & Liu, Z. (2000). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth in China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 49(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1086/452488
Liu, Y., Nath, N., Murayama, A., & Manabe, R. (2021). Transit-oriented development with urban sprawl? Four phases of urban growth and policy intervention in Tokyo. Land Use Policy, 112, 105854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105854
Martinez-Vazquez, J., & McNab, R. M. (2003). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth. World development, 31(9), 1597-1616. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X03001098?casa_token=PX5fJvi6tm8AAAAA:_ZmPnNqFet-sgqavUsfV2SiDOsSiz3WxaRgy4QyMTsVG5DzEYTC5C1vyP7GwZTsyefjkmM48Rg
National Geographic Society. (2012, October 9). Rural area. National Geographic Society. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rural-area/.
National Geographic Society. (2012, October 9). Urban area. National Geographic Society. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/urban-area/#:~:text=An%20urban%20area%20is%20the%20region%20surrounding%20a%20city.,towns%2C%20cities%2C%20and%20suburbs.
Russo, C. (2017, September 11). In the wake of Urbanisation. Future Proof. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.futuresplatform.com/blog/wake-urbanisation.
Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan, G., & Tacoli, C. (2010). Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554), 2809–2820. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0136
Scannel, L., & Gifford, R. (2014). The psychology of place attachment. In R. Gifford, & R. Gifford (Ed.), Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice (5th ed., pp. 272 - 300). Colville, Wash, Washington, United States of America: Optimal Books. Retrieved September 30, 1998.
Tegegne G/Egizabher. (2002). Urban policy and strategy in Ethiopia proceeding of the second annual conference, Addis Ababa, association of Ethiopian geographer.
Terando, A. J., Costanza, J., Belyea, C., Dunn, R. R., McKerrow, A., & Collazo, J. A. (2014). The southern megalopolis: Using the past to predict the future of urban sprawl in the southeast U.S. PLoS ONE, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102261
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2021, July 27). Impact of the Industrial Revolution. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/urbanization/Impact-of-the-Industrial-Revolution.
The Investopedia Team. (2021, December 1). How does industrialization lead to urbanization? Investopedia. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/041515/how-does-industrialization-lead-urbanization.asp.
United Nations . (2018, May 16). 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says un | UN Desa Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.
Williamson, J. G. (1965). Regional inequality and the process of National Development: A Description of the patterns. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 13(4, Part 2), 1–84. https://doi.org/10.1086/450136
Wu, A. M., Ye, L., & Li, H. (2018). The impact of fiscal decentralization on urban agglomeration: Evidence from China. Journal of Urban Affairs, 41(2), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2018.1484254
Yuko, E. (2021, November 18). How the industrial revolution fueled the growth of cities. History.com. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://www.history.com/news/industrial-revolution-cities.